Pneumatic. Servo. Adaptive fingers. End-of-arm tools.

F_grip > weight × safety_factor (1.5-2) × friction_coefficient + dynamic forces. Specific calculation per part weight, robot acceleration, gripper geometry.

Pneumatic: cheap, simple, fast cycle, less force control. Electric: programmable force, position feedback, more expensive. Pneumatic for high volume same-part; electric for variable products.

Yes — finger geometry matched to part geometry. CNC-machined aluminum fingers with steel inserts at wear surfaces. Custom finger development typical service.

Vacuum for flat surfaces (panels, glass, electronics PCBs). Mechanical for 3D objects, parts with varying surface. Each excels at different applications.

Typical 100-500ms cycle (close + open). Faster for high-volume picking. Pneumatic generally faster than electric.

$500-3000 standard pneumatic. $2000-15000 servo electric. $5000-50000 custom adaptive grippers with sensors.